How We Came to Know the Cosmos:
Space & Time

Discover How We Came to Know the Cosmos

18th December 2017 by Dr Helen Klus

Chapter 32. Image Copyright

Cover image Modified by Helen Klus, original image by NASA, ESA. Public domain.

Chapter 1. Constellations

Figure 1.1 ’Abd al-Rahman Al-Sufi. Public domain.
Figure 1.2 Johann Bayer. Public domain.
Figure 1.3 Sidney Hall/Richard Rouse Bloxam/Adam Cuerden. Public domain.
Figure 1.4 IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg), http://www.iau.org/public/themes/constellations/#hya. Licensed under an Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en.

Chapter 2. Latitude and Longitude

Figure 2.1 Djexplo. Public domain.
Figure 2.2 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Longitude.html, original image by NASA. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 2.3 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Longitude.html, original image by Andrea Pittalis, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Asse_di_inclinazione_della_Terra.jpg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 2.4 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Longitude.html, original image by Tfr000, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Earth_tilt_animation.gif?uselang=en-gb. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 2.5 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Longitude.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 2.6 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Longitude.html, original images by NASA and Dnu72, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reloj_H_12_00.svg, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reloj_H_03_00.svg, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reloj_H_06_00.svg, and https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reloj_H_09_00.svg?uselang=en-gb. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 2.7 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Longitude.html, original image by Pierre Dubois. Public domain.
Figure 2.8 Christiaan Huygens/Harold C. Kelly. Public domain.
Figure 2.9 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Longitude.html, original image by NASA. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 2.10 Colonel Warden, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Harrison_H4_chronometer.jpg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.

Chapter 3. Models of the Universe

Figure 3.1 The Harmoniamacrocosmica of Andreas Cellarius. Public domain.
Figure 3.2 The Harmoniamacrocosmica of Andreas Cellarius. Public domain.
Figure 3.3 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Heliocentric-models-of-the-Solar-System.html, original image by Andonee. Public domain.
Figure 3.4 The Anome/Gregors. Public domain.
Figure 3.5 James Ferguson/Andrew Bell/Encyclopaedia Britannica. Public domain.
Figure 3.6 © Eugene Alvin Villar, 2008, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Apparent_retrograde_motion_of_Mars_in_2003.gif. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 3.7 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Heliocentric-models-of-the-Solar-System.html, original image by Dhenry, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Epicycle_et_deferent.png. Licensed under an Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en.
Figure 3.8 Johannes Kepler. Public domain.
Figure 3.9 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Heliocentric-models-of-the-Solar-System.html, original image by Talifero. Public domain.
Figure 3.10 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Heliocentric-models-of-the-Solar-System.html, original image by Talifero. Public domain.
Figure 3.11 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Heliocentric-models-of-the-Solar-System.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 3.12 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Heliocentric-models-of-the-Solar-System.html, original image by Socrates Linardos, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_retrograde_motion.png. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 3.13 Galileo Galilei. Public domain.
Figure 3.14 Galileo Galilei. Public domain.
Figure 3.15 Galileo Galilei. Public domain.
Figure 3.16 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Heliocentric-models-of-the-Solar-System.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 3.17 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Heliocentric-models-of-the-Solar-System.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.

Chapter 4. Force, Momentum, and Energy

Figure 4.1 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Force-and-energy.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 4.2 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Force-and-energy.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 4.3 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Force-and-energy.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 4.4 Michael Frey, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aeolipile_Engine_Animation.gif. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 4.5 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Force-and-energy.html, original image by Booyabazooka. Public domain.
Figure 4.6 Simon Stevin/Tos. Public domain.
Figure 4.7 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Force-and-energy.html. Public domain.
Figure 4.8 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Force-and-energy.html. Public domain.

Chapter 5. Newton’s theory of Gravity

Figure 5.1 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Newtons-theory-of-gravity.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 5.2 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Newtons-theory-of-gravity.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 5.3 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Newtons-theory-of-gravity.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 5.4 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Newtons-theory-of-gravity.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 5.5 Brian Brondel, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Newton_Cannon.svg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 5.6 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Newtons-theory-of-gravity.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 5.7 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Newtons-theory-of-gravity.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 5.8 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 5.9 Mpfiz. Public domain.

Chapter 6. The Age of the Universe

Figure 6.1 Finetooth, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_PEFO_Tepees.jpg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 6.2 Samuel Griswold Goodrich. Public domain.
Figure 6.3 Samuel Griswold Goodrich. Public domain.
Figure 6.4 Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins. Public domain.

Chapter 7. Einstein’s theory of Special Relativity

Figure 7.1 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Special-relativity.html, original image by Acdx, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traincar_Relativity1.svg and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traincar_Relativity2.svg. Licensed under an Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en.
Figure 7.2 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Special-relativity.html, original images by Mdd4696 and Mdd4696. Public domain.
Figure 7.3 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Special-relativity.html, original image by Wapcaplet, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pythagorean.svg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 7.4 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Special-relativity.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 7.5 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Special-relativity.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 7.6 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Special-relativity.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 7.7 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Special-relativity.html, original image by Jorge Stolfi. Public domain.
Figure 7.8 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Special-relativity.html, original image by Oleg Alexandrov. Public domain.
Figure 7.9 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Special-relativity.html, original image by Stannered, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:060322_helix.svg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 7.10 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Special-relativity.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.

Chapter 8. Einstein’s theory of General Relativity

Figure 8.1 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/General-relativity.html, original image by Pbroks13/Markus Poessel, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elevator_gravity.svg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 8.2 NASA/GSFC/J. Friedlander. Public domain.
Figure 8.3 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/General-relativity.html, original images by NASA and NASA/Kennedy. Public domain.
Figure 8.4 F. W. Dyson, A. S. Eddington, and C. Davidson. Public domain.
Figure 8.5 NASA/ESA/Caltech. Hubblesite Image Use Policy.
Figure 8.6 R. Hurt/Caltech-JPL. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 8.7 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/General-relativity.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 8.8 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/General-relativity.html, original image by NASA. NASA Visible Earth Image Use Policy.

Chapter 9. The Big Bang

Figure 9.1 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Big-bang.html, original image by NASA. Public domain.
Figure 9.2 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Big-bang.html, original image by BenRG. Public domain.
Figure 9.3 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Big-bang.html, original images by NASA and NASA/Hubble. Public domain.
Figure 9.4 NASA/WMAP Science Team. Public domain.
Figure 9.5 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 9.6 NASA/WMAP Science Team. Public domain.
Figure 9.7 ESA and the Planck Collaboration, http://m.esa.int/spaceinimages/Images/2013/03/Planck_CMB. ESA’s Image Use Policy.
Figure 9.8 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Big-bang.html, original image by NASA/WMAP Science Team. Public domain.
Figure 9.9 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Big-bang.html, original image by NASA. Public domain.
Figure 9.10 ESA and the Planck Collaboration, http://www.esa.int/spaceinimages/Images/2013/03/Planck_cosmic_recipe. ESA’s Image Use Policy.

Chapter 10. Galaxies

Figure 10.1 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Galaxies.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 10.2 Caroline Herschel. Public domain.
Figure 10.3 Isaac Roberts. Public domain.
Figure 10.4 Cosmo0. Public domain.
Figure 10.5 Dr T.H. Jarrett (Caltech), https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Galaxy_morphology.jpg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 10.6 ESO, http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0620a/. Licensed under an Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en.
Figure 10.7 NASA/STScI/WikiSky. Public domain.
Figure 10.8 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Galaxies.html, original image by NASA/CXC/M.Weiss. Chandra Image Use Policy.
Figure 10.9 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Galaxies.html, original images by NASA/Adler/U. Chicago/Wesleyan/JPL-Caltech and NASA/CXC/M.Weiss. Chandra Image Use Policy.
Figure 10.10 NASA, ESA, CXC, M. Bradac (University of California, Santa Barbara), and S. Allen (Stanford University). Public domain.
Figure 10.11 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Galaxies.html, original image by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. Public domain.
Figure 10.12 NASA, J. English (U. Manitoba), S. Hunsberger, S. Zonak, J. Charlton, S. Gallagher (PSU), and L. Frattare (STScI). Hubblesite Image Use Policy.
Figure 10.13 Andrew Z. Colvin, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:5_Local_Galactic_Group_(ELitU).png. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 10.14 Andrew Z. Colvin, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:6_Virgo_Supercluster_(ELitU).png. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 10.15 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Galaxies.html, original image by Andrew Z. Colvin, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:7_Local_Superclusters.png. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 10.16 Klaus Dolag, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Local_galaxy_filaments.gif. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.

Chapter 11. Stars

Figure 11.1 NASA/JPL-Caltech/W. Reach (SSC/Caltech). Public domain.
Figure 11.2 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Stars.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 11.3 Borb, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FusionintheSun.svg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 11.4 Borb, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CNO_Cycle.svg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 11.5 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Stars.html, original image by Richard Powell/Penubag, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:H-R_diagram_-edited-3.gif. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 11.6 NASA. Public domain.

Chapter 12. Red Giants and White Dwarfs

Figure 12.1 ESO/M. Kornmesser, http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1337a/. Licensed under an Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en.
Figure 12.2 Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 12.3 J.P. Harrington and K.J. Borkowski (University of Maryland) and NASA/ESA, http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/opo9501c/. Licensed under an Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en.
Figure 12.4 NASA/ESA. Public domain.
Figure 12.5 Borb, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FusionintheSun.svg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 12.6 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Red-giants-and-white-dwarfs.html, original image by NASA. Public domain.
Figure 12.7 NASA and H. Richer (University of British Columbia). Public domain.
Figure 12.8 X-ray: NASA/CXC/Rutgers/K.Eriksen et al.; Optical: DSS. Public domain.

Chapter 13. Supergiants, Supernova, and Neutron Stars

Figure 13.1 ESA/Hubble and NASA, http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1142a/. Licensed under an Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en.
Figure 13.2 ESO/L.Calçada, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Hibernating_Stellar_Magnet_(artist’s_impression).jpg. Licensed under an Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en.
Figure 13.3 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 13.4 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 13.5 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 13.6 NASA/Honeywell Max-Q Digital Group/Dana Berry. Public domain.
Figure 13.7 Walt Feimer, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. Public domain.
Figure 13.8 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Neutron-stars.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 13.9 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Neutron-stars.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 13.10 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Neutron-stars.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 13.11 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Neutron-stars.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 13.12 NASA’s Imagine the Universe. Public domain.
Figure 13.13 NASA’s Imagine the Universe. Public domain.
Figure 13.14 NASA’s Imagine the Universe. Public domain.

Chapter 14. Black Holes

Figure 14.1 NASA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA). Hubblesite Image Use Policy.
Figure 14.2 NASA/JPL-Caltech. Public domain.
Figure 14.3 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Black-holes.html, original image by Aurore Simonnet, Sonoma State University/NASA. Public domain.
Figure 14.4 NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center/Swift. Public domain.

Chapter 15. The planet Mercury

Figure 15.1 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 15.2 Gdr, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sidereal_day_(prograde).png. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 15.3 NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington. Public domain.

Chapter 16. The planet Venus

Figure 16.1 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Venus.html, original image by NASA. Public domain.
Figure 16.2 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 16.3 NASA/JPL. JPL Image Use Policy.

Chapter 17. The planet Earth

Figure 17.1 NASA. Copyright Mark C. Lee. Used with permission.
Figure 17.2 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Earth.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 17.3 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Earth.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 17.4 NASA/Don Davis. Public domain.
Figure 17.5 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Earth.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 17.6 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Earth.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 17.7 NASA. Public domain.

Chapter 18. The Earth’s Moon

Figure 18.1 NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio. Public domain.
Figure 18.2 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 18.3 NASA/X-romix. Public domain.
Figure 18.4 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 18.5 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 18.6 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 18.7 NASA/Eugene Cernan. Public domain.

Chapter 19. The planet Mars

Figure 19.1 NASA/JPL/MSSS. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 19.2 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 19.3 NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 19.4 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Mars.html, original image by NASA/AFP. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 19.5 NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU. Public domain.
Figure 19.6 JPLraw NASA/JPL-Caltech/Univ. of Arizona. Public domain.
Figure 19.7 NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona. Public domain.
Figure 19.8 NASA/JPL/University of Arizona. Public domain.

Chapter 20. The Asteroid Belt

Figure 20.1 NASA/JPL-Caltech. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 20.2 Mdf. Public domain.
Figure 20.3 NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA. Public domain.
Figure 20.4 NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCAL/MPS/DLR/IDA. JPL Image Use Policy.

Chapter 21. The planet Jupiter

Figure 21.1 NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute. Public domain.
Figure 21.2 NASA/JPL/DLR. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 21.3 NASA/JPL-Caltech. Public domain.
Figure 21.4 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Jupiter, original image by NASA/JPL. Public domain.

Chapter 22. The planet Saturn

Figure 22.1 NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute/G. Ugarkovic. Public domain.
Figure 22.2 NASA/JPL-Caltech/Keck. Public domain.
Figure 22.3 ESA/NASA/JPL/University of Arizona. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 22.4 ESA/ATG medialab. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 22.5 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Saturn.html, original image by NASA/JPL. Public domain.
Figure 22.6 NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute. JPL Image Use Policy.

Chapter 23. The planet Uranus

Figure 23.1 NASA, ESA, and M. Showalter. Hubblesite Image Use Policy.
Figure 23.2 NASA. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 23.3 NASA/JPL. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 23.4 NASA. Public domain.

Chapter 24. The planet Neptune

Figure 24.1 NASA/JPL. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 24.2 NASA/JPL/USGS. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 24.3 NASA/JPL. Public domain.

Chapter 25. Comets

Figure 25.1 Philipp Salzgeber, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997_hires_adj.jpg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 25.2 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/History-of-comets.html, original image by NASA/JPL-Caltech/UMD/. Public domain.
Figure 25.3 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/History-of-comets.html, original image by NASA. Public domain.
Figure 25.4 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 25.5 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 25.6 Halley Multicolor Camera Team, Giotto Project, ESA, http://www.esa.int/spaceinimages/Images/2003/04/Comet_Halley_s_nucleus_as_seen_by_Giotto. ESA’s Image Use Policy.
Figure 25.7 Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 25.8 NASA/JPL-Caltech/UW/Cornell. Public domain.
Figure 25.9 NASA/JPL-Caltech/UW/Cornell. Public domain.
Figure 25.10 NASA/JPL-Caltech/UMD. Public domain.
Figure 25.11 ESA/Rosetta. Public domain.
Figure 25.12 ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA. ESA’s Image Use Policy.

Chapter 26. The Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud

Figure 26.1 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 26.2 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Kuiper-Belt-and-Oort-Cloud.html. Public domain.
Figure 26.3 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Kuiper-Belt-and-Oort-Cloud.html, original image by NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute/Jcpag2012/PlanetUser, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internal_Structure_of_Pluto.jpg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 26.4 NASA, ESA, and L. Frattare (STScI). Public domain.
Figure 26.5 NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI. New Horizons Image Use Policy.
Figure 26.6 NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI. Public domain.
Figure 26.7 NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI. Public domain.
Figure 26.8 NASA/Lexicon, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EightTNOs.png. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 26.9 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Kuiper-Belt-and-Oort-Cloud.html, original image by NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute. New Horizons Image Use Policy.
Figure 26.10 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Kuiper-Belt-and-Oort-Cloud.html, original images by NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI, NASA, and copyright NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI/Roman Tkachenko. Used with permission.
Figure 26.11 NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI. Public domain.
Figure 26.12 NASA. Public domain.

Chapter 27. The Pioneer and Voyager Missions

Figure 27.1 NASA on The Commons. Public domain.
Figure 27.2 NASA Ames. Public domain.
Figure 27.3 NASA/JPL-Caltech. Public domain.
Figure 27.4 NASA/JPL. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 27.5 NASA/JPL. Public domain.
Figure 27.6 NASA/JPL. Public domain.

Chapter 28. Discovering Exoplanets

Figure 28.1 NASA, ESA, K. Sahu (STScI) and the SWEEPS Science Team. Hubblesite Image Use Policy.
Figure 28.2 IAU/L. Calçada, https://www.iau.org/public/images/detail/iau1301a/. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 28.3 Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Exoplanets.html. Licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.
Figure 28.4 NASA, ESA, and P. Kalas (University of California, Berkeley and SETI Institute). Public domain.
Figure 28.5 N.metcalfe & Pan-STARRS 1 Science Consortium, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PSO_J318.5-22_image_from_the_Pan-STARRS1_telescope.png. Licensed under an Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en.
Figure 28.6 NASA. Public domain.
Figure 28.7 NASA. JPL Image Use Policy.
Figure 28.8 NASA. JPL Image Use Policy.

Chapter 29. The Search for Alien Life in the Universe

Figure 29.1 Heyheyuwb at English Wikipedia, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Klein_Namutomi_Waterhole,_Namibia.jpg. Licensed under an Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
Figure 29.2 ESA/NASA. Public domain.
Figure 29.3 NASA/Ames/JPL-Caltech. Public domain.
Figure 29.4 Bibi Saint-Pol. Public domain.
Figure 29.5 Don Davis/NASA Ames Research Center. Public domain.
Figure 29.6 Don Davis/NASA Ames Research Center. Public domain.
Figure 29.7 Don Davis/NASA Ames Research Center. Public domain.
Figure 29.8 G. Hüdepohl (atacamaphoto.com)/ESO, https://www.eso.org/public/images/huedepohl-02/. Licensed under an Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en.

Chapter 30. Where are all the Aliens?

Figure 30.1 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Where-are-all-the-aliens.html, original image by NASA/Ernie Wright. Public domain.
Figure 30.2 Modified by Helen Klus, http://www.thestargarden.co.uk/Where-are-all-the-aliens.html, original image by NASA/Kennedy. Public domain.
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